City-states in early Mesopotamia were ruled by which of the following?

While some city-states may have involved assemblies in decision-making processes, they were not the primary rulers. Governance was largely centralized in the hands of priest-kings, who wielded authority over the citizenry, making assemblies less prominent in early Mesopotamian political structures.

Military leaders played a significant role in defending the city-states and could influence politics, but they did not typically govern. The rule was predominantly in the hands of priest-kings who maintained order and religious practices, contrasting with the temporary and often reactive nature of military leadership.

Scribes were essential for record-keeping and administration within the city-states, facilitating communication and governance. However, they did not hold political power or rule; their role was more clerical and bureaucratic, acting under the authority of the ruling priest-kings.

Merchants were important for trade and the economy of city-states but did not govern. Their influence was economic rather than political, and they often operated within the framework established by the ruling priest-kings, who controlled the city's resources and policies.